The good folks of Harley-Davidson of Central Mississippi are putting on the seventh annual Trail of Honor in Jackson, Mississippi this weekend, 16 and 17 May 2009. There will be "real-life heroes, including former POWs, Medal of Honor recipients, Navajo Code Talkers and Tuskegee Airmen."

The Tuskegee Airmen should be a real draw. "Three of the famous African-American pilots will participate in a flyover by four T-6 training aircraft and a P-51 Mustang, the type of plane flown by the Airmen in World War II."

If I was anywhere near Mississippi, I'd be there this weekend. Sadly, I'm in Estonia right now sans bike.

Good riding to those of you who make it. Shake a few veterans hands for me if you get the chance.

More detail here.

Campaign, Theatre or War?

The war involving the United States of America (USA) and the Creek Indians of 1813-1814 has its fingers in many historical pies. Does one consider the fighting a mere theatre or campaign of the War of 1812 or a separate war on its own? Were the Creeks part of an American Indian confederation or acting out a long festering civil war? If part of a confederation, were they allied with the British like their northern confederates? If so, should the British have forced the Americans to honour the Treaty of Ghent’s provisions on restoring land after the cessation of the War of 1812 as they did in the north? These are all legitimate questions, but the subtleties of the causes and effects of the War of 1812 make them almost indiscernible definitively.

In conflating these issues, however, the fighting and its consequences often get lost in too many other narratives that have larger aims. The fighting between a faction of the Creeks and the USA had an obvious start at the Battle of Burnt Corn, distinct campaigns by the Americans with no other purpose than to engage the Creeks, and a formal ending with the Treaty of Fort Jackson. Finally, would the war have occurred even if there was not a War of 1812? Almost definitely. Therefore, for the purpose of this essay, I will treat it as a separate war fought by an independent faction of the Creek Indians against the USA in an attempt to compare and analyse the various ways the conflict has been presented in written history. What this means, pragmatically, is that I will be comparing books with sections of books and chapters of books depending on the orientation of the book itself. Since so much of the history of the war has been written in the course of examining some of the actor’s lives, biographies will likewise be compared with war narratives and even geographical histories.

Introduction

The literature on the Creek War goes back to within 40 years of the war itself and has taken a near 360 degree turn. The early works were essentially works of local history and one focussed on the Creek War almost exclusively. These works not only viewed the war as a separate entity, but were conspicuous in trying to give a balanced account by including input from the Creek Indians who participated. In the first half 20th century, the works tended to go down one of two routes, Andrew Jackson or the War of 1812. In the Jackson works, the general who concluded the war with the Creeks at Fort Jackson takes center stage and the narrative is mostly about the will of ‘Old Hickory’. In the works on the War of 1812, the story intertwines Tecumseh and the war to the north in the beginning and the British and the battles for Mobile and New Orleans in the south at the end of the War of 1812. In both of these avenues, the voices of the Creek participants are few and often overly generalised. If the turn has not been full, it has at least been substantial, with recent books that focus on the war with the Creeks (and by extension the Seminoles) and provide a primary source link to the British, American and Spanish actions. In other words, the Creek War is linked to the British effort in the south, but far more tenuously than many previous War of 1812 works had examined, helping the Creek War stand more on its own. I’ll examine selected works of these four strands in order.

Early, Local History

Any Creek War library will include, and probably start with, Albert James Pickett’s History of Alabama and Incidentally of Georgia and Mississippi from the Earliest Period. Pickett published his wide-ranging book in 1851. Pickett moved to Alabama with his parents in 1818 at the age of 8 and knew many of the actors in the war. Although it looks a little simple by today’s notation standards, Pickett makes clear that he is trying to create a direct link to the words of the participants through personal interviews and/or examination of manuscripts and original sources. Unfortunately, he misses his own mark regularly where pages flow by with nary a source note (for example the Battle of Talladega). It breezes along in a small town newspaper kind of way, like everyone knows everyone else, which is probably how Alabama felt in 1851. An exception is the ‘Canoe Fight’ which has gone down in American folklore. Three American militiamen and a slave fought and bested eleven Creeks in a fight between two canoes in the middle of the Alabama River. In this case, Pickett provides a direct link through multiple sources to one of the more fantastics stories to come out of the war. Pickett has provided the basic story line for virtually every Creek War writer hence, so deserves the credit for being first, but it would not stand up to historical scrutiny today.

The same applies to H.S. Halbert and T.H. Ball’s The Creek War of 1813 and 1814. Halbert and Ball both lived and worked in the area of Alabama where much of the Creek War occurred. They published their book in 1895, but many of the interviews and oral histories go back into the 1870s. One is left wondering how much was written from memories gathered twenty-five years previous to their commitment to print. What notes there are are often in line and often show a heavy reliance on just a few major sources. At other times, the authors provide an introductory note to a chapter or section that broadly defines the works consulted and where they were found, but again very little specifics. Once again, many subsequent authors have used Halbert and Ball for inspiration in building a story line, but have had to find the specific historical sources themselves.

Jackson, the Great Man

One thing that both Pickett and Halbert & Ball do provide is an inclusion of all of the various campaigns directed at the deep back country of the upper Creeks. Two campaigns marched from Tennessee (east and west), one originated from the Tensaw district around Mobile and one began in central Georgia. I mention these facts, because the next group of books tend to underplay any campaign besides the one from west Tennessee, led by Andrew Jackson. Although the malady has been getting better in recent years, many of the books on Jackson have little to say about the broader Creek War.

The most prolific biographer of Jackson is Robert Remini. Remini is the author of a three volume biography as well as several more specific titles relating to Andrew Jackson. In this case, I will be a little unfair to Remini as his more detailed books take more care to mention the other campaigns, but his The Battle of New Orleans : Andrew Jackson and America’s First Military Victory is the Remini exception that proves the Jackson rule, especially older Jackson works. In the first chapter, Remini sets the stage for the Battle of New Orleans by recounting the Creek War that had been concluded by the Treaty of Fort Jackson. In six pages of narrating the main events, Remini never mentions any other campaign besides Jackson’s. Anyone who knows the Creek War through an Andrew Jackson biography is at risk of not knowing anyone else was involved. I’ll not be too hard on Remini, though, as he is known as an keen researcher into all of the primary materials.

All is not lost with Jackson biographers, though. Another writer who takes a broader view of Jackson’s effect on the old southwest is John Buchanan with his Jackson’s Way: Andrew Jackson and the People of the Western Waters. Buchanan explains Jackson’s character as a product of the people of the old southwest and the unrelenting surge of those people into the southern Indian lands. Although not in great detail, which is fair enough given the book is about Jackson, Buchanan gives creditable space to the march from Georgia, the campaign from the Tensaw and east Tennessee. Another recent book that takes the measure of other American’s contributions to the Creek War is Sean Michael O’Brien’s In Bitterness and Tears: Andrew Jackson’s Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles. O’Brien also provides the linkage to the Seminole war of 1818, but that is out of our scope in this essay.

The Broader War Narratives

Next are the works on the War of 1812 in general with sections committed to the Creek War. One of the most respected authors of the War of 1812 is Reginald Horsman who wrote The War of 1812 and The Causes of the War of 1812. Horsman gives a balanced and respectable, if short, summary of the Creek War whilst stating his belief that it was ‘only indirectly connected to the main Anglo-American struggle’. A contemporary of Horsman is Harry L. Coles who also titled his book The War of 1812. Although well told and having a respectable 15 pages on the Creek War, Coles provides no notations and only a suggested reading list for each chapter.

Of a more recent publication, A.J. Langguth’s Union 1812 commits a chapter to the Creek War. However, it takes a celebrity cant to telling the story by using the characters of Davy Crockett (famous frontiersman) and Sam Houston (later President of Texas). Crockett and Houston indeed were involved in Jackson’s Creek campaigns, but hardly played decisive roles. Although Langguth is an academic, he uses a non-standard notation style which makes it very difficult to follow his citations. This practice along with his penchant for character based story telling detracts from its academic quality.

Local, Connected and Detailed

As an antidote to the non standard citation style and character driven narratives, we have J. Leitch Wright Jr.’s Creeks and Seminoles which takes a broad view of the nation that made up the ethnic group we have called the Creeks. Although Wright only addresses one chapter to the war, it is refreshingly different by providing context from the Creek side of the conflict. Wright, an academic at Florida State University, cites his sources and his research is happily detailed which gives the book a feel of real authenticity. Paired with its original voice about the ethnic voices within the Creek nation, we are able to see how the Creeks developed both a strong nativist streak and a more ambivalent strain to white settlement amongst other rivalries. He also sheds some light on how far some of the Creeks were integrated with the Shawnee war effort to the north.

Finally, there is Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans 1812-1815 by Frank Lawrence Owsley Jr. This is probably the most complete and original work on the Creek War. Owsley gives a detailed account of the causes and military actions from each campaign and also integrates the Gulf of Mexico campaign after the Treaty of Fort Jackson. So far, so much the same. However, Owsley performs a real service to the long suffering Creek War reader. Owsley has gone back to all of the primary sources, British, American, Creek and Spanish, to construct a detailed picture of how the Creek War spilled over into the Gulf campaign naturally, if haphazardly. Owsley goes even further. He says that the Gulf campaign begins and ends with the British connections with the Indians as military forces and that winning the Gulf campaign was the largest success of the whole War of 1812. Owsley’s citations and bibliographical information are a dream for the serious student of this conflict.

Conclusion

The literature of the Creek War has seen an evolution from local, informal history to the war history through the actions of a great man, to relegation to a small chapter in a larger story to the return to local history that documents extensively its connections with the outside world. With this upward spiral, we can see trends that help us all write better history. We must look to the primary sources first and fill in the story line with secondary sources. We need to find the context that makes the local more networked. we have to challenge assumptions of identity and motives. And most of all, we must show our work!

Bibliography;

Buchanan, John (2001), Jackson's Way: Andrew Jackson and the People of the Western Waters (Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

Coles, Harry L. (1965), The War of 1812 (Chicago and London: Chicago University Press)

Halbert, H. S. and Ball, T. H. (1895), The Creek War of 1813 and 1814 (Montgomery, Alabama: White, Woodruff & Fowler)

Horsman, Reginald (1972), The War of 1812 (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode)

Langguth, A. J. (2007), Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence (New York: Simon & Schuster)

O'Brien, Sean Michael (2003), In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson's Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles (Westport, Connecticut: Praeger)

Owsley, Jr., Frank Lawrence (1981), Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans 1812-1815 (The University of Alabama Press)

Pickett, Albert James (1851), History of Alabama and Incidentally of Georgia and Mississippi from the earliest Period (Charleston: Walker and James)

Remini, Robert. V. (2001), The Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson and America's First Military Victory, (Penguin (Non-Classics))

Wright, Jr., J. Leitch (1986) Creeks and Seminoles: Destruction and Regeneration of the Muscogulge People, (University of Nebraska Press)

I'm happy to welcome Mike Bunn and Clay Williams to Battlefield Biker to talk about their new book titled, The Battle for the Southern Frontier: The Creek War and the War of 1812. It is published by The History Press. You can see my review of the book here.

Battlefield Biker (BB) - Why did you write this book?

Clay Williams (CW) - Mike and I have a love for this time period in Gulf South History. We had previously worked together at the Old Capitol Museum of Mississippi History and had done lots of research on the Mississippi Territorial Period (1798-1817), which included the Creek War and the War of 1812, for a future exhibit. Mike eventually left to take another job in Georgia and the exhibit never took place due to Hurricane Katrina closing the Old Capitol. Mike and I have stayed in touch over the years and wanted to do a large project again together and the Creek War and its related Gulf Coast campaigns of the War of 1812 looked like a perfect fit. We had already done some research, and it is a topic that is basically unknown to many. Mike and I love to visit historic sites and so visiting and documenting these areas where these key events took place would be a key portion of our book and we so we decided to take the project on.

Mike Bunn (MB) - We certainly didn't set out to write a book at first, though. It's a project that just grew once we got into it and realized the possibilities and discovered how much info we had to share.

BB - Will you tell us a little about the format of the book ( I love it). i.e. timeline, biographies, geographic points of interest, some original documents and the essay. How did you work out what you wanted to do with the book?

CW - Mike and I initially referred to the book as a sourcebook-a one-stop shop for gathering information on the conflict. We knew it was not going to be a long narrative and didn't want it to be one. We targeted it for the general public and wanted it to be easily accessible and this was what we came up with. Again, Mike and I have stated this was not to be a new definitive study of the conflict, but a book that hopefully introduced the topic to the many that have no idea about it and that its format would make it easy to peruse and enjoy without getting bogged down with long narratives and too many footnotes. There were components that we wanted in it that we thought be helpful, a time line, a great bibliographical essay, original documents, as well as site locations. Again, I will say the book grew out of the idea to visit these sites, many marked and many unmarked, and document them for the public-the whole historic preservation and interpretation idea.

BB - How did you work as a team? Did you split duties?

CW - Yes, we split duties. By splitting the wars into 4 campaigns, meant we were both responsible for two-that meant doing research, locating historic sites, writing the narrative text as well as the text for the historic sites and the bios for those participants in our respective campaigns, locating graphics, etc. We also split the various other portions as well such as Mike wrote the Origins of War and I wrote the Conclusion. Each of us would write a first draft, then submit to the other for editing and suggestions. Mike and I work very well together in that regard. We don't have large egos and we can each tell the other that something he wrote was garbage. It was a great pleasure to work with Mike. We both have such a love for the study history and are eager to do projects of this nature.

MB - We started working like that when we worked together at the Old Capitol. We have written so much together that it was easy to critique each other's writing. Editing can be a touchy process for many, but fortunately not for us. We didn't edit so much as fine tune what we knew we were each trying to say. We were truly on the same page and as I look back on the work, I don't think readers will be able to tell which section was written by who; it comes off as one voice.

BB - The bibliographic essay was great. Who inspires you in this field? i.e. clear source display.

MB - Their are a lot of authors we like and we both have ridiculous personal libraries. As far as this topic specifically, though, I'd have to say that Robert Remini, Frank Owsley, Jr., and Henry S. Halbert and T.H. Ball stand as the foremost inspirations. Remini is a master storyteller, Owsley wrote what we consider to be the definitive study of the conflicts we cover and was the only one to rely exclusively on primary sources, while Halbert and Ball produced one of the first serious studies of the wars. The fact that they co-authored their work made them an especially significant inspiration for us.

CW - Not sure I have an answer for that. I know Mike and I both enjoy books that are well documented and have great bibliographies so we can find other books, articles etc. that touch on a topic we like and can search ourselves. I know our wives would agree that we both spend waaaay too much money purchasing books.

Editor's note... Don't ever let the Mrs. Bunn, Mrs. Williams and the Battlefield Bikette meet in the same room. The pressure to eBay the libraries may get too strong.

BB - What role did technology play in the writing of the book? i.e. online research, collaboration software, Skype, IM, etc?

CW - Not too much-Some small online research, but mostly through books and articles. E-mail is a wonderful thing-cheap for Mike and I to contact each other as well as for us to contact historians located across our theater of war. Mike and I met many local historians who had done great research on their particular area and we were able to combine alot of their research into this book.

MB - As Clay says, this was not a tech-heavy project. We of course have the website and relied on a digital camera and photoshop, but email was about as advanced as most of it got.

BB - Other than Andrew Jackson, which historical figure(s) jumped out at you and made you wish you had more space for biographical detail?

MB - William Weatherford was a complex individual. He was as white as Creek, yet became one of the foremost Redstick leaders. During the war he was a fearless and intelligent leader. After the war, he returned to life as a planter in south Alabama and was apparently an accepted member of the community. He must have been fascinating.

CW - Agreed. William Weatherford is a great figure-We wish there was more information out there on him.

BB - In your opinion, how much of the Creek Indian war strategy, tactics and supply were informed or provided by the British directly?

CW - Hmmm, another good question.....I will say not much. Of course, the Creek War had basically ended before the British could become directly involved. However, please be aware that many of the Creek leaders, such as Weatherford, had as much European ancestry as they had Creek ancestry, so many had read or were familiar with "white tactics" of war.

MB - Yes, this was a war planned and fought by the Redsticks. Everything might have been different had the British managed to get involved earlier, but that is just conjecture.

BB - What was your favourite map of the book and/or research?

MB - For me, it was learning about Floyd's campaign with the GA militia. Two of the largest battles of the war were fought by troops under his command, but they remain among the most unknown battles of the war. There are no markers commemorating either of them, sadly. As far as maps, I am proud that we were able to create a series of them that detailed the battles of each campaign fairly accurately. So many of the ones we have seen are wildly inaccurate.

CW - Another tough question.....I enjoyed so much of the research. The War of 1812 sections concerning Mobile, Pensacola and Lake Borgne were so fascinating to me. Many have heard of Jackson's win at New Orleans, but the events leading up to it are really unknown and I liked delving into it. The contemporary maps created by Latour were awesome and I really liked all the maps we have created to help others understand the conflict. Maps are so essential when reading any type of military history. Nothing is worse than reading a detailed account of a battle or campaign and not having a reference map to chart the movements of armies.

BB - What use was GPS and geo tagging in your research?

CW - Not much, Our favorite map was produced by Delorme. They were awesome and got us out of many fixes.

MB - Yeah, topo maps got us back to civilization a few times when we thought we'd never see another paved road!

Editor's note; Delorme is a Battlefield Biker favourite as well. See Battlefield Biker's Ride Recommendations for specific Delorme maps for battlefield touring.

BB - What support did your employer's give to the book?

CW - I did work on the book independently of my regular job with the Mississippi department of Archives and History.

MB - This was totally independent of our jobs.

BB - Did you have any great road trips together or separately in the research?

CW - Yes, the best part of the book were the trips Mike and I took together. We would meet in a central location in Alabama, drop off one car, and with maps and notes in hand, take off on a circular route to locate various areas. We took several long weekend trips. They were great, but exhausting. We would both leave our respective homes at like 6am, meet up 3 hours later, then drive around til dark, stopping at historic sites, then stay at a some hotel, then get up the next morning and repeat the process. It was always a great thrill to find a historic marker or monument off the beaten path after following some vague directions or such. Plus, those moments at Fort Mims, Horseshoe Bend, and Chalmette, overlooking the battlefield while we take photos still fills me with awe-to be on the actual ground where these momentous events took place. It is this feeling that Mike and I hope we can convey to our readers with our book.

MB - Clay and I have made many trips together, but as a group the ones for this trip were certainly the most rewarding.

BB - What was your favourite driving/riding road in your travels?

MB - Well although they were a little hazardous and difficult, I'd have to say all the unpaved roads we ventured onto were my favorite. When we did find old markers (placed in their location as much as 90 years ago when these dirt paths were thoroughfares) it was very rewarding. It gave us a sense we had truly discovered something people zipping by on the highways are missing.

BB - What's next for Bunn and Williams as a team or individually?

CW - Well, in the pipeline, Mike and I want to do a similar formatted book on the entire Mississippi Territorial period-early 1800s to 1820-tracing locations where events took place that eventually transformed this frontier area of the Gulf South into the states of Mississippi and Alabama. Again, this is such an unknown part of history that we are eager to inform the public about it and its importance.Not sure when we will be able to get into it. We are both still a little exhausted having completed this one book while both working full-time jobs. We both wish we could win the lottery or something and do this type of work full-time.

Thanks Gentlemen for a little insight to your work. It has been a pleasure reading the book and interviewing you. Please support practical scholarship like this by buying their book at the link below.

Buy Battle for the Southern Frontier and Delorme Maps from Amazon.com

On Tuesday this week, I received the Battle for the Southern Frontier: The Creek War and the War of 1812, by Mike Bunn and Clay Williams in the mail. It is published by The History Press.

I absolutely devoured this book. This is my kind of popular history. Bunn and Williams have written a book of a great history, but also backed it up with lots of detail on the historical ground where the war was fought. Their bibliographic essay is a dream for those of us who like to dig a little deeper. They even include some of the source documents and illustrations in the book itself. Finally, they include lots of maps, location descriptions and images of historical markers that help us saddled adventurers find the pertinent locations on our travels.

Bunn and Williams break the story up into 5 parts...the origins of the war, war from the south northwards, from Georgia westwards, from Tennessee southwards and finally the Gulf campaign against the British. Each section has the basic history told, but also the key locations described in detail, so you can find them even if they are long lost and/or unmarked. So much of this era is only told when discussing Andrew Jackson. It is refreshing to see a book that gives a little room to the important operations around Mobile and west Georgia/east Alabama.

The book also has two things that I love in any history book which is a good timeline to start the book and a list of short biographies of all the main players. In fact, I like to read the timeline and biographies first to give me good mental hooks to hang the story on as I read. These are both tight, stand-alone references for anyone who wants to start a deeper study of the conflict.

I've already mentioned the detailed and helpful bibliographic essay, but the selection of original documents are also a great read. Of special note are the accounts of the Canoe fight and Tecumseh's speech to the Creek, which I have blogged about previously here. There is also a website to support the book that can be found here.

This book, by the author's own admission, is not meant to add a lot of new scholarship to the history, but in my mind it does what it is meant to do admirably. In some ways, I think the authors do not give themselves enough credit when it comes to their photo documentation of the historical sites as original research. I have read many accounts of this war, but have yet been able to visualize several of the important geographic features. An example is Emuckfau Creek. There are creeks that can be crossed with a leap, or barely getting your feet wet, or wade-able or only swimmable. When imagining the battle, it is hard to determine whether it was hard or easy to cross in the midst of a battle. However, Bunn and Williams answer that for me by giving me a photo on Emuckfau on page 89. No other factual account has done that for me. There are far too few military histories with adequate maps, good directions to the key points for travelers, concise biographies of key players, original images and solid bibliographies written in a way that does not intimidate new readers nor insult those who already come to the subject with some knowledge. This one does all of these things and does them well.

Great book. Bunn and Williams get a coveted Battlefield Biker helmet nod.

Buy Battle for the Southern Frontier from Amazon.com

Background

Prior to the War of 1812, the British and the Spaniards had been forging alliances with Indians on the American frontier to try to slow American expansionism, and therefore power. One significant Indian Chief, the Shawnee Chief Tecumseh, used this time and support to try to build an Indian Confederacy along the western edge of the American frontier. Tecumseh's Shawnees were based predominantly in current day Indiana, Illinois and western Kentucky, but were historically linked to the Creek people of current day Alabama and Georgia. Tecumseh travelled to Alabama to rally the Creeks to war against the whites in the region.

Below is Tecumseh's speech to the Creeks at Tuckabathcee in October 1811 as told by Sam Dale to JFK Claiborne;

"In defiance of the white warriors of Ohio and Kentucky, I have traveled through their settlements, once our favorite hunting grounds. No war-whoop was sounded, but there is blood on our knives. The Pale-faces felt the blow, but knew not whence it came.

Accursed be the race that has seized on our country and made women of our warriors. Our fathers, from their tombs, reproach us as slaves and cowards. I hear them now in the wailing winds.

The Muscogee was once a mighty people. The Georgians trembled at your war-whoop, and the maidens of my tribe, on the distant lakes, sung the prowess of your warriors and sighed for their embraces.

Now your very blood is white; your tomahawks have no edge; your bows and arrows were buried with your fathers. Oh !

Muscogees, brethren of my mother, brush from your eyelids the sleep of slavery; once more strike for vengeance; once more for your country. The spirits of the mighty dead complain. Their tears drop from the weeping skies. Let the white race perish.

They seize your land; they corrupt your women; they trample on the ashes of your dead!

Back, whence they came, upon a trail of blood, they must be driven.

Back! back, ay, into the great water whose accursed waves brought them to our shores !

Burn their dwellings! Destroy their stock! Slay their wives and children! The Red Man owns the country, and the Pale-faces must never enjoy it.

War now! War forever! War upon the living! War upon the dead! Dig their very corpses from the grave. Our country must give no rest to a white man's bones.

This is the will of the Great Spirit, revealed to my brother, his familiar, the Prophet of the Lakes. He sends me to you.

All the tribes of the north are dancing the war-dance. Two mighty warriors across the seas will send us arms.

Tecumseh will soon return to his country. My prophets shall tarry with you. They will stand between you and the bullets of your enemies. When the white men approach you the yawning earth shall swallow them up.

u Soon shall you see my arm of fire stretched athwart the sky. I will stamp my foot at Tippecanoe, and the very earth shall shake.'"*

* At the battle of the Holy Ground, which occurred some time after, the prophets left by Tecumseh predicted that the earth would yawn and swallow up General Claiborne and his troops. Tecumseh refers to the Kings of England and Spain, who supplied the Indians with arms at Detroit and at Pensacola. The British officers had informed him that a comet would soon appear [ed. The Great Comet of 1811], and the earthquakes of 1811[ed. the New Madrid Earthquakes of 1811-1812] had commenced as he came through Kentucky. Like a consummate orator, he refers to them in his speech. When the comet soon after appeared, and the earth began to tremble, they attributed to him supernatural powers, and immediately took up arms.

Source, pages 59-61
Life and times of Gen. Sam Dale, the Mississippi partisan (1860)
Author: Claiborne, J. F. H. (John Francis Hamtramck), 1809-1884

Unbeknownst to Tecumseh, his brother, Tenskwatawa or "The Prophet," was busy picking a fight with William Henry Harrison at Tippecanoe, Indiana shortly thereafter which would severely hamper his plans for an Indian Confederacy on the western borders to stop the ever expanding American frontier.

Ride Suggestion

This ride starts at exit 26 on I-85 to the east of Montgomery, Alabama. In between exit 26 and Tallassee, Alabama, on the banks of the Tallapoosa River, is the historic meeting place of the Creeks called Tuckabatchie where Tecumseh gave his speech to the Creeks. The ride continues through Lake Martin and down the beautiful Highway 9 to Wetumpka. This area is part of the traditional homeland of the Creeks.

Book Recommendations

After the tough battles at Emuckfau/Emuckfaw and Enitachopco Creeks and the near total devastation of the Red Stick Creeks at Horseshoe Bend, Jackson ordered all of the Creeks to report to Fort Jackson on 1 August 1814 to discuss terms of a comprehensive treaty. Jackson was a new Major Genral in the U.S. Army due to the resignation of William Henry Harrison, the hero of Tippecanoe, and was in no mood for compromise and stood firm with all of the Creeks, including the US frendly White Sticks. He took his new rank seriously and was intent on using his new power with his heroic reputation to get what he wanted (and what the thought the US needed).

What was to become the Treaty of Fort Jackson made several major demands, including;

• Surrender the prophets (leaders) of the Red Sticks
• The US would have free navigation of the waterways in the Creek areas
• The US would have the right to build roads in the Creek areas
• The US would control all trade in the Creek areas
• The US could build military and trading centers in the Creek areas
• The Creeks must cede over half of Creek held land to make good for the costs associated with the war

That last point was the one that caused the most consternation as it it applied to all Creeks, not just the troublemakers. Jackson wanted the majority of the existing Creek lands, including a strip that would separate the Creeks from the Spanish Florida tribes and was adamant in his demand. Old allies' concerns were cast aside by Old Hickory in the name of national defense. Jackson wanted to break the communications link between the northern and southern tribes and severely weaken the influence of foreign powers from the Gulf of Mexico inland, namely the British and their occasional alliances with the Creeks.

Benjamin Hawkins, a civilian advisor at the talks, tried to help the Creeks bend Jackson with well reasoned pleas that they had been strong allies of the Americans against the Red Sticks and, although they had once sided with the British, they would promise not to do so again in the future. They had brought up this point, because they knew that it was this threat of foreign intervention and its threat to block access to the Gulf that was causing the pragmatic Jackson to demand total severance from the temptation. No, General Jackson would have total capitulation or the resisting Creeks would be banned from the area altogether.

Hawkins pleaded with Washington to apply pressure on Jackson to relent a little, but Washington had a man who wanted what they wanted, even if he was the type to forego diplomatic niceties of compromise. Finally, the old warrior, Selocta, who had fought with Jackson during the hard times in eastern Alabama asked for just the area west of the Coosa River as a concession. One can almost feel the chill in the air today when thinking of the old soldier saying "no" to one of his comrades-in-arms one final time.

Jackson's only slip of will (if it can be even be called that) was that he would allow the Creeks who disagreed with the Treaty to go to the Florida panhandle. The Creeks had little choice. The Treaty was signed on 9 August 1814.

Motorcycle Ride

Check out the "Figure 8" ride starting at Fort Jackson Park and taking a big chunk of the historical Creek homeland in eastern Alabama. Go outside of Summer, unless you like sweating like a whiskey salesman in a Woman's Christian Temperance Union hall.

Book Recommendation

Jackson's Way by John Buchanon

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The Creek War was part of the War of 1812, because the Americans believed, with good reason, that the British and Spanish were coaxing the Red Stick (anti-US) Creeks along with supplies and guidance. The fact that the Tohopeka (Horseshoe Bend) stronghold on the Tallapoosa River in Alabama (see a map of the area) was fortified with European style battlements re-enforced this belief.

After the tactically brutal and ugly fights at Emuckfaw and Enitachopco in January 1814, Andrew Jackson gathered his new forces and had another go at the Red Stick Creeks led by the Prophet Monahell and Chief Menawa with the possible inclusion of the famed William Weatherford (Red Eagle), a half Scottish, half Creek warrior. Jackson was determined to make this campaign the last major one in the area by destroying the Red Stick Creek force at its very stronghold and defended by its best warriors and leaders.

Jackson took off from Fort Strother in mid March with new Tennessee volunteers from the eastern part of that state, the 39th U.S. Infantry, Cherokees and White Stick (pro-US) Creeks. Jackson's target was to be the stronghold at the horseshoe shaped bend on the Tallapoosa River that the Creeks called Tohopeka. The new forces were important, because Jackson's previous foray into this wilderness was with Tennnessee volunteers who had many complaints about their pay and enlistment periods. This new force was more motivated and professional. The plan was to form an envelopement and was designed to trap the Red Sticks in the confines of the river bow (see a map of the arrayed forces).

Jackson sent his trusty number two, John Coffee, the White Stick Creeks, some Cherokees and the dragoons to the far side (southern) of the river to feint a river crossing. Jackson took the main force to attack the breastworks head on from the north. Jackson opened up with his limited artillery, but his small guns just bounced shot off the timbered works. However, the sound of the guns excited some of Coffee's force and they managed to swim the Tallapoosa and steal some canoes. This allowed a landing and cut off the Red Sticks' main retreat option. Whilst Coffee was harrying the Red Sticks near the river, Jackson ordered a charge on the works. Jackson's force was then able to use the timber for protection themselves as they fired through the portals from the outside. Finally, a courageous push over the top that included Sam Houston (who was seriously wounded) succeeded in breaching the Creek perimeter with substantial forces. The Red Stick forces fought a determined, but doomed defense inside the stronghold with Jackson even levelling his artillery at point blank range into the huts used as a last stand.
The battle resulted in the largest death toll of Native Americans (557 +) in a single battle throughout all of the Indian wars. Monahell was killed (possibly by Menawa who was fed up with Prophetic devices rather than fighting), Menawa was severely wounded, but escaped and William Weatherford escaped only to walk into Fort Jackson (formerly Fort Toulouse) a few months later to surrender. Weatherford was to play a key role in encouraging many other Red Sticks to give up to the Americans.

Horsehoe Bend is seen as the last of the Creek nation living independently in their ancestral grounds, but this particular Indian War will forever be associated with the War of 1812, because of the winning General. Clearing out the Creeks would allow Jackson to focus on New Orleans nearly a year later with glorious results for Old Hickory.

Motorcycle Ride Recommendation

Try this "figure 8" ride starting and ending at Fort Toulouse / Jackson State Historic Site. This takes in the scenic Alabama State Routes 9 and 22 as well as the Horseshoe Bend National Military Park.

Book Recommendation: The Creek War, 1813-1814 from AbeBooks.com or Amazon.com

Map Recommendation: Alabama Atlas and Gazetteer 2006 from AbeBooks.com or Amazon.com

Accor Hotels in the Montgomery, Alabama area

The War of 1812 coincided with an uprising amongst part of the Creek Indian nation that was rebelling against the U.S. governments attempts to "civilize" them. For the "volunteers" of Tennessee, including future President Andrew Jackson, the majority of the War of 1812 was spent fighting Indians and not the British.

In 1811, Tecumseh of the Shawnee, visited the distant cousin Creek and encouraged rebellion against the white man's ways. The tribe split over whether to follow their ancient ways or throw in their lots with the white man. Those for integration with the USA were called "White Sticks" and those who favored fighting were called "Red Sticks." This Creek civil war was destined to go beyond the nation and did soon enough with a slaughter of over 250 whites / mixed raced Creeks near Mobile, Alabama in August 1813. This caused the predictable call for retribution and U.S. military action. Enter "Old Hickory" Jackson and his Tennessee Volunteers.

In late 1813, Jackson entered Alabama and set up a supply post (Fort Deposit)and a forward post on the Coosa river(Fort Strother) in northern Alabama and began operations against the Creek. Almost from the start, Jackson was beset with mutinous Tennesseans who felt that time spent back in Tennessee counted as part of their enlistment, whilst Jackson felt it did not. Many Tennesseans left, but Jackson pushed on with what was left of his force and a couple of green Regiments that had just arrived from west Tennessee.

Being Old Hickory meant doing hard things anyway, so Jackson set off for the known Creek encampment at Emuckfau / Emuckfaw Creek. He camped within hearshot of the encampment on 21 January 1814 and sent out patrols to find them. The patrols reported that not only did they find them, the Creeks knew of them too. At daybreak the next day, the Creek attacked front and rear, but were thrown back. Jackson counter-attacked and killed a good many. He then wanted to take the initiative and destroy their base. Jackson sent his old friend, General John Coffey, to root out the Creek base on Embuckfau Creek. Coffey went forth, but found the place too well defended and retired. Once Coffey returned, the Creeks attacked Jackson again with a feign on one side and a main attack on the other. Once again, the Creeks were thrown back, but Jackson was in trouble with bloodied, green troops in "Indian Country" with little back up. Jackson felt he need to retire and re-enforce at Fort Strother.

On his way out of the area, Jackson camped on Enitachopco Creek on the 23rd and fixed fortifications, knowing that another attack was likely. Luckily, they got a quiet night and they headed out in the morning. The quiet was not to last. Not long on the trail, they began crossing Enitachopco Creek and the rear guard was put to the run by the Creek attack. The panic spread and a meltdown was looking likely, but Jackson managed to pull together enough to fend off the attack with even his Nashville artillerymen fighting hand-to-hand. Eventually the tide turned with more of the lead elements re-crossing the creek to take part. The Creek warriors began to slip and finally decided getting away from Old Hickory was better than dying in place.

Jackson had the upper hand in both engagements, eventually, but had found out how hard it was going to be to fight in this nearly unsupportable backwater of eastern Alabama.

Books from Amazon.co.uk

Motorcycle Ride

Try this ride which encompasses both battle sites at the two creeks.

Maps

Interesting post at The Jacksonian Party on the relative lack of constabulary forces in American military history.